causes of hypokalemia

Hypokalemia. The usual cause of hypokalemia is a person losing potassium too quickly. The most common cause is excess loss from the kidneys or gastrointestinal tract. But … If there is a condition that causes the hypokalemia, such as low levels of magnesium or an overactive thyroid, the other condition must be treated also. Causes shown here are commonly associated with this symptom. Mild hypokalemia may be asymptomatic or cause mild nonspecific symptoms such as nausea, muscle weakness, and fatigue. In most cases, the cause of hypokalemia is apparent from the history and physical examination. Hypokalemia (low serum potassium) is a common electrolyte disorder that is typically caused by potassium loss (e.g., due to diarrhea, vomiting, or diuretic medication). However, there are other causes of hypokalemia too. [1] Solutions containing high concentrations of potassium (>40 mmol/L) should generally be given using a central venous catheter. For example, correction by 1 mEq/L can take more than 1000 mEq of potassium over many days. Bio; Latest Posts; Maria Mona. Sustained-release formulations should be avoided in acute settings. With more severe hypokalemia, flaccid paralysis and hyporeflexia may result. A single copy of these materials may be reprinted for noncommercial personal use only. [3] Magnesium replacement may also be required. The kidney is responsible for the regulation of the potassium levels in the body. Low potassium levels can interfere with the heart and cause abnormal heart rhythms. A specialist consultation is required if an endocrine cause of hypokalemia is suspected. A more common cause is excessive loss of potassium, often associated with heavy fluid losses that "flush" potassium out of the body. Latest on COVID-19 vaccination by site: Adams JG. Normally, your blood potassium level is 3.6 to 5.2 millimoles per liter (mmol/L). If your low potassium levels cause abnormal heart rhythms; When your hypokalemia is a result of another medical condition, your doctor will help you treat that. Hypokalemia. 1 Usually the cause or causes of hypokalemia are obvious; however, determination of the fractional clearance of potassium may help differentiate renal and non-renal losses. Often, the cause of hypokalemia can be found out through the medical history of the patient. Accessed May 5, 2017. Cause: excessive potassium loss through vomiting or urinary sytem, or reduced dietary intake (anorexia). Hypokalemia is a low level of potassium (K ) in the blood serum. Hypokalemia is a metabolic imbalance characterized by extremely low potassium levels in the blood. [23], Potassium chloride supplements by mouth have the advantage of containing precise quantities of potassium, but the disadvantages of a taste which may be unpleasant, and the potential for side-effects including nausea and abdominal discomfort. Other gastrointestinal causes include pancreatic fistulae and the presence of adenoma. Normal serum levels are 3.5-5mEq/L. Also known as water pills or diuretics, these types of medications are often prescribed for people who have high blood pressure or heart disease. [1] Hyperkalemia is a high level of potassium in the blood serum. Hypokalemia Symptoms. Diuretics are by far the most commonly used drugs that cause hypokalemia. Potassium is an important electrolyte within the body and is vital for the normal function of muscles and nerves. [1], The speed at which potassium should be replaced depends on whether or not there are symptoms or abnormalities on an electrocardiogram. Hypokalemia is thought to be severe if serum potassium levels become lower than 2.5 mmol/l. Diagnostic checklist, medical tests, doctor questions, and related signs or symptoms for Hypokalemia. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. A low potassium level has many causes but usually results from vomiting, diarrhea, adrenal gland disorders, or use of diuretics. Due to prolonged repolarization of ventricular Purkinje fibers, prominent U waves occur (usually seen at V2 and V3 leads), frequently superimposed upon T waves, therefore producing the appearance of prolonged QT intervals, when serum potassium levels fall below 3 mEq/L. Mount DB, et al. Potassium bicarbonate is preferred when correcting hypokalemia associated with metabolic acidosis.[23]. These causes include; 1… Hypokalemia in dogs and cats occurs typically from one of three basic mechanisms that are not mutually exclusive: 1) decreased intake, 2) translocation from extracellular fluid to intracellular fluid, and 3) increased loss. Most of the time hypokalemia is a symptom or side effect of other conditions and medications. A. Hypokalemia is defined as a serum K + level <3.5 mmol/L and is one of the most common electrolyte disorders. [25] When peripheral infusions are necessary, the burning can be reduced by diluting the potassium in larger amounts of fluid, or adding a small dose of lidocaine to the intravenous fluid,[24] although adding lidocaine may increase the likelihood of medical errors. Vomiting can also cause hypokalemia, although not much potassium is lost from the vomitus. Clinically, the combination of hypokalemia, hypertension and metabolic alkalosis should make one suspect hyperaldosteronism either primary or secondary. Other manifestations of hypokalemia include muscle weakness and rhabdomyolysis, as well as renal abnormalities: impaired concentrating ability, increased ammonia production, increased bicarbonate reabsorption, altered sodium reabsorption, hypokalemic nephropathy, and elevated blood pressure. Hypokalemia pathophysiology involves studying the impact of low potassium levels on the body. Associations: Nausea and vomiting +/- bowel obstruction where a nasogastric tube is being used for management; Pathophysiology: The parietal cells within the gastric mucosa utilize the K + /H + ATPase pump to regulate the gastric contents of K + and H + ions. It is a laboratory artifact that may occur when blood samples remain in warm conditions for several hours before processing. Treatment: manage underlying cause and … Mayo Clinic facts about coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), Our COVID-19 patient and visitor guidelines, plus trusted health information, Mayo Clinic Health System patient vaccination updates. A person’s blood can become low in potassium if they haven’t been taking in enough through their diet. People without a significant source of potassium loss and who show no symptoms of hypokalemia may not require treatment. [3] Lower levels of potassium require replacement with supplements either taken by mouth or given intravenously. Muscle Cramps and Spasms. Potassium is a micro-mineral, an electrolyte that is required for proper functioning of the heart, nerves and maintaining salt-water balance in the body.Low levels of potassium may be life threatening. Alkalosis causes shifting of potassium from interstitial fluids and plasma into cells, due to Na+-H+ exchange stimulation and the resultant Na+/K+-ATPase activation. Abnormal GI potassium losses occur in all of the following: Clay (bentonite) ingestion, which binds potassium and ... Intracellular shift. It is a rather common electrolyte disturbance, especially in hospitalized patients, with various causes and sometimes requires urgent medical attention ().It usually results from increased potassium excretion or intracellular shift and less commonly from reduced potassium intake. Summary. Hypokalemia which is recurrent or resistant to treatment may be amenable to a potassium-sparing diuretic, such as amiloride, triamterene, spironolactone, or eplerenone. It is a symptom of another disease or condition, or a side effect of diuretic drugs. The body needs potassium for the contraction of muscles (including the heart), and for the functioning of many complicated proteins (enzymes). Definition Hypokalemia is defined as a persistently low levels of serum potassium lower than 3.6 mEq/L. The normal concentration of p… Antibiotics. Hypokalemia is present when serum levels of potassium are lower than normal. A low potassium level can make muscles feel weak, cramp, twitch, or even become paralyzed, and abnormal heart rhythms may develop. In rare cases, it can occur because someone is not getting enough potassium. Accessed April 5, 2017. Typically, a saline solution is used, with 20–40 meq/l KCl per liter over 3–4 hours. Diagnosis: laboratory measurement of potassium. It is critical to the proper functioning of nerve and muscles cells, particularly heart muscle cells. Hypokalemia is more common in people with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and gastrointestinal illnesses that cause severe or persistent diarrhea … Mayo Medical Laboratories. [26] Even in severe hypokalemia, oral supplementation is preferred given its safety profile. Hypokalemia 1. Diuretic use is a common cause of renally mediated hypokalemia.10 When given in the same dosage, chlorthalidone is more likely to induce hypokalemia … List of 153 disease causes of Hypokalemia, patient stories, diagnostic guides, 49 drug side effect causes, 30 drug interaction causes. Diarrhea or vomiting Medicines, such as diuretics, blood pressure medicines, or antibiotics Excessive use of laxatives Anorexia or bulimia nervosa Medical conditions, such as Cushing syndrome or kidney disease Not eating enough foods that contain potassium Weakness and fatigue are often the first signs of potassium deficiency. This means most times; hypokalemia is often a symptom of another disease. If your low potassium levels cause abnormal heart rhythms; When your hypokalemia is a result of another medical condition, your doctor will help you treat that. Renal potassium losses. Potassium, serum. Typically, this is a consequence of diarrhea, excessive perspiration, or losses associated with muscle-crush injury, or surgical procedures. Muscle cramps are sudden, uncontrolled contractions of … Weakness, nausea, and fatigue- hypokalemia causes weak muscle contractions and affects the body’s way of using nutrients, leading to weakness and fatigue; Constipation – low potassium levels (hypokalemia) can affect the intestinal muscles. Thus, decreased intake alone rarely causes significant hypokalemia. The electrochemical gradient of potassium between the intracellular and extracellular space is essential for nerve function; in particular, potassium is needed to repolarize the cell membrane to a resting state after an action potential has passed. Both medications are unlikely to cause hypokalemia if used in moderation. Potassium is found primarily in the skeletal muscle and bone, and participates with sodium to contribute to the normal flow of body fluids between the cells in the body. The most common congenital cause of hypokalaemia is Gitelman's syndrome, associated with impaired renal tubular ion transport due to a mutation in the Na+/Cl− co-transporter gen… In some cases, low potassium levels can lead to arrhythmia, or abnormal heart rhythms, as well as severe muscle weakness. Hypokalemia is defined as decreased potassium levels in the body. The most common congenital cause of hypokalaemia is Gitelman's syndrome, associated with impaired renal tubular ion transport due to a mutation in the Na+/Cl− co-transporter gene . Mild cases may not have any symptoms. This site complies with the HONcode standard for trustworthy health information: verify here. However, a low potassium intake can contribute to the severity of potassium depletion when another cause of hypokalemia is superimposed, such as diuretic therapy. If the situation is severe, potassium might be given as an intravenous (IV) solution. Hypokalemia and hyperkalemia are common electrolyte disorders caused by changes in potassium intake, altered excretion, or transcellular shifts. 8 Signs and Symptoms of Potassium Deficiency (Hypokalemia) 1. Potassium. This hyperpolarization is caused by the effect of the altered potassium gradient on resting membrane potential as defined by the Goldman equation. [22][23], Eating potassium-rich foods may not be the optimal method for correcting low potassium and potassium supplements may be recommended. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Medications. Meanwhile, the daily body requirement of potassium is calculated by multiplying 1 mmol to body weight in kilograms. Drugs. Two food related causes of hypokalemia that is worth noting is excessive sodium intake particularly in the form of table salt and excessive liquorice consumption. [1], Hypokalemia is one of the most common water–electrolyte imbalances. A low potassium level can make muscles feel weak, cramp, twitch, or even become paralyzed, and abnormal heart rhythms may develop. May cause hypokalemia such as infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis with vomiting. Renal losses. Alkalosis : This causes low potassium level by 2 mechanisms. Hypokalemia occurs commonly in chronic heart failure consequent to neurohormonal activation and diuretic therapy. In hypokalemia, the level of potassium in blood is too low. Diuretic use is a common cause of renally mediated hypokalemia.10 When given in the same dosage, chlorthalidone is more likely to induce hypokalemia than hydrochlorothiazide, which is more often implicated because of its widespread use.11,12 Diuretic-induced hypokalemia is dose-dependent and tends to be mild (3 to 3.5 mEq per L [3 to 3.5 mmol per L]), although it can be more severe when accompanied by other causes (e.g., gastrointestinal [GI] losses).13 There was no overt loss of potassium through GI tract and skin. Causes of Hypokalemia Disease. Hypokalemia can result from one or more of these medical conditions: Not eating a diet with enough potassium-containing foods or fasting can cause the gradual onset of hypokalemia. Care guide for Hyperkalemia. Reports exist of rhabdomyolysis occurring with profound hypokalemia with serum potassium levels less than 2 meq/l. Causes of Hypokalemia Hypokalemia results from abnormal losses, transcellular shifts, or insufficient intake (Table 1).6-8 Abnormal losses are most com-mon.9 Because the … The exact cause of hypokalemia could not be ascertained in our patient. Hypokalemia is more common in people with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and gastrointestinal illnesses that cause severe or persistent diarrhea or vomiting. Mayo Clinic offers appointments in Arizona, Florida and Minnesota and at Mayo Clinic Health System locations. Hypokalemia may occur as a result of increased rate of loss of body’s potassium or reduced intake. Increased sodium (hypernatremia) in the blood occurs whenever there is excess sodium in relation to water. This concentration gradient is maintained principally by the Na+/K+ pump. We demonstrate how the application of physiological principles may help to identify unusual causes of a very low plasma potassium (K +) concentration (P K) and paralysis.In the two patients described, the short time course of the illness suggested that there was an acute shift of K + into cells. Low potassium also increases the risk of an abnormal heart rhythm, which is often too slow and can cause cardiac arrest. [1][3], Causes of hypokalemia include vomiting, diarrhea, medications like furosemide and steroids, dialysis, diabetes insipidus, hyperaldosteronism, hypomagnesemia, and not enough intake in the diet. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2013. https://www.clinicalkey.com. The most common cause is excess loss from the kidneys or gastrointestinal tract. It is critical to the proper functioning of nerve and muscles cells, particularly heart muscle cells. Causes of hypokalemia in adults. Mild hypokalemia doesn’t cause symptoms. Abstract.   But not eating enough potassium can worsen the problem if another cause is present. Steroids and steroid-like medications. This delayed repolarization may promote reentrant arrhythmias. Introduction. Hypokalemia is serum potassium concentration < 3.5 mEq/L (< 3.5 mmol/L) caused by a deficit in total body potassium stores or abnormal movement of potassium into cells. Work with your doctor or other health care professional for an accurate diagnosis. Have you ever noticed your heart suddenly beating harder, faster or skipping a … It is a symptom of another disease or condition, or a side effect of diuretic drugs. Symptoms may include feeling tired, leg cramps, weakness, and constipation. ), National Organization for Rare Disorders: Hypokalemia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypokalemia&oldid=1005754911, CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers, Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Hypokalaemia, hypopotassaemia, hypopotassemia, An ECG in a person with a potassium level of 1.1 meq/l showing the classical changes of, Dietary changes, potassium supplements, based on the underlying cause. This content does not have an Arabic version. Severe hypokalemia, with serum potassium concentrations of 2.5–3 meq/l (Nl: 3.5–5.0 meq/l), may cause muscle weakness, myalgia, tremor, and muscle cramps (owing to disturbed function of skeletal muscle), and constipation (from disturbed function of smooth muscle). How hypokalemia causes tachycardia; how it affects resting membrane potential. Low potassium (hypokalemia) refers to a lower than normal potassium level in your bloodstream. Although the most common causes are diuretic use and gastrointestinal losses, elevated cortisol levels can also cause hypokalemia through its effects on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Mild hypokalemia may be asymptomatic or cause mild nonspecific symptoms such as nausea, muscle weakness, and fatigue. Hypokalemia. Any use of this site constitutes your agreement to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy linked below. Most cases are the result of either diuretic consumption or loss of gastrointestinal (GI) fluids through persistent vomiting, chronic diarrhoea or laxative abuse. [1] Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/L (3.5 and 5.0 mEq/L) with levels below 3.5 mmol/L defined as hypokalemia. [6], Mild hypokalemia (>3.0 mEq/l) may be treated by eating potassium-containing foods or by taking potassium chloride supplements in a tablet or syrup form (by mouth supplements). Scientific rigor is lacking to define the optimal potassium level, the appropriate pace of correction and whether such correction influences outcome. Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Hypokalemia is a frequent disorder, especially important in cardiac patients. Normally, your blood potassium level is 3.6 to 5.2 millimoles per liter (mmol/L). Potassium helps carry electrical signals to cells in your body. These causes include; Bartter syndrome: This syndrome is a rare genetic mutation disorder that is often causing disturbances in the kidney and, as such, causes salt and electrolyte (including potassium) imbalance, invariably causing hypokalemia. Hypokalemia is the term used to describe low potassium levels in the body. Mild low potassium does not typically cause symptoms. 5. Distinguishing renal loss from GI loss of potassium is essential. Electrolytes disorders. [18] Faster infusion rates are therefore generally only performed in locations in which the heart rhythm can be continuously monitored such as a critical care unit.   But not eating enough potassium can worsen the problem if another cause is present. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine_and_metabolic_disorders/electrolyte_disorders/hypokalemia.html. Accessed April 5, 2017. This was demonstrated in a study of normal individuals in whom lowering potassium intake to 20 mEq per day was associated with a reduction in serum potassium from 4.1 mEq/L at baseline to 3.5 mEq/L [ 2 ]. [27][28][29][30], Human disease caused by insufficient potassium, Distribution away from extracellular fluid, CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (, apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome, "Natriuretic effect of caffeine: assessment of segmental sodium reabsorption in humans", "Fluids and Electrolytes Challenge - Disorders of Fluids and Electrolytes - Integrated View of Potassium Homeostasis", "New Guidelines for Potassium Replacement in Clinical Practice", "How should intravenous (IV) potassium chloride be administered in adults? The body needs potassium for the contraction of muscles (including the heart), and for the functioning of many complicated proteins (enzymes). In addition, the reduced extracellular potassium (paradoxically) inhibits the activity of the IKr potassium current and delays ventricular repolarization. The cause of hypokalemia is usually ascertained by obtaining a careful history, checking BP, and ordering a few laboratory tests. Our general interest e-newsletter keeps you up to date on a wide variety of health topics. [1] Mild low potassium does not typically cause symptoms. Kdeficit (in mmol) = (Knormal lower limit − Kmeasured) × body weight (kg) × 0.4 Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic School of Continuous Professional Development, Mayo Clinic School of Graduate Medical Education, FREE book offer — Mayo Clinic Health Letter, Time running out - 40% off Online Mayo Clinic Diet ends soon. The most common cause is excessive potassium loss in urine due to prescription medications that increase urination. Distinguishing renal loss from GI loss of potassium is essential. A special case of potassium loss occurs with, Disease states that lead to abnormally high, In addition to alkalosis, other factors can cause transient shifting of potassium into cells, presumably by stimulation of the Na, Rare hereditary defects of muscular ion channels and transporters that cause, A handful of published reports describe individuals with severe hypokalemia related to chronic extreme consumption (4–10 l/day) of. [5], Mild hypokalemia is often without symptoms, although it may cause elevation of blood pressure,[6] and can provoke the development of an abnormal heart rhythm. Low potassium (hypokalemia) refers to a lower than normal potassium level in your bloodstream. [1][19], Hypokalemia leads to characteristic ECG changes (PR prolongation, ST-segment and T-wave depression, U-wave formation). Diuretic use and gastrointestinal losses are common causes of hypokalemia, whereas kidney disease, hyperglycemia, and medication use are common causes … There are many causes of hypokalemia such as diarrhea, diabetes insipidus, dialysis, hypomagnesemia, hyperaldosteronism, side effect of medications like furosemide or steroids, and more. Hyperkalemia results when there is impaired excretion of potassium due to acute or chronic kidney disease, or disorders or drugs that inhibit the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis. Acutely, repletion with 10 mEq of potassium is typically expected to raise serum potassium by 0.1 mEq/L immediately after administration. If there is a condition that causes the hypokalemia, such as low levels of magnesium or an overactive thyroid, the … Summary. Diuretic use especially long-term therapy with any thiazide or loop diuretic is the most common medication-related cause. Potassium is a micro-mineral, an electrolyte that is required for proper functioning of the heart, nerves and maintaining salt-water balance in the body.Low levels of potassium may be life threatening. Hypokalemia, or decreased potassium, can arise due to kidney diseases; excessive losses due to heavy sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, eating disorders, certain medications, or other causes. With vomiting, the cause is not mainly direct loss of potassium but that of chloride causing high levels of aldosterone which inhibits potassium reabsorption from the kidney tubules. Potassium supplements are generally prescribed for low potassium levels. Acute increase of HCO3- concentration in the plasma, caused due to … Severe hypokalemia (<3.0 mEq/l) may require intravenous supplementation. About 98% of the body's potassium is found inside cells, with the remainder in the extracellular fluid including the blood. Hypokalemia ECG changes. Concomitant hypomagnesemia will inhibit potassium replacement, as magnesium is a cofactor for potassium uptake. What causes hypokalemia? Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/81390. Medications. Hypokalemia (low serum potassium) is a common electrolyte disorder that is typically caused by potassium loss (e.g., due to diarrhea, vomiting, or diuretic medication). [4] It affects about 20% of people admitted to hospital. -Cause specific treatment-Consider single IV infusion of 150 cc 3% hypertonic over 20 minutes (2D) Eur J Endocrinol 2014; 170 (3), G1-G47; Am J Med 2013; 126, S1-S42 Hyponatremia: treatment Mild to moderate symptoms: Rate of correction • Minimum correction of 4- … There are several ways... 2. Additionally, replacing potassium solely through diet may be costly and result in weight gain due to potentially large amounts of food needed. [1] Low levels may also be suspected based on an electrocardiogram (ECG). Underlying Causes of Hypokalemia . The most common cause of low potassium is excessive potassium loss through the urine or … Adding potassium deficit and daily potassium requirement would give the total amount of potassium need to be corrected in mmol. Causes of hypokalemia. Signs: muscle weakness, ileus. Vomiting, diarrhea or both also can result in excessive potassium loss from the digestive tract. Med. 1. What Are the Causes of Low Potassium? Mount DB, et al. Rather, heavy urinary losses of K+ in the setting of post-emetic bicarbonaturia force urinary potassium excretion (see Alkalosis below). Causes of Hypokalemia Hypokalemia results from abnormal losses, transcellular shifts, or insufficient intake (Table 1).6-8 Abnormal losses are most … [20], The amount of potassium deficit can be calculated using the following formula: Hypokalemia may occur as a result of increased rate of loss of body’s potassium or reduced intake. Heart Palpitations. Increasing magnesium intake may also be beneficial for similar physiological reasons. Hypokalemia is a metabolic imbalance characterized by extremely low potassium levels in the blood. Diuretic use and gastrointestinal losses are common causes of hypokalemia, whereas kidney disease, hyperglycemia, and medication use are common causes of hyperkalemia. – SPS - Specialist Pharmacy Service – The first stop for professional medicines advice", "Safety Issues With Adding Lidocaine to IV Potassium Infusions (Excerpt)", "Review of Destiny's Road by Larry Niven", 10.1093/med/9780199204854.003.210202_update_001, "Narrative review: evolving concepts in potassium homeostasis and hypokalemia", Content of Selected Foods per Common Measure, sorted by nutrient content (Potassium), List of foods rich in potassium (U. This page was last edited on 9 February 2021, at 07:36. The most common cause is excessive potassium loss in urine due to prescription medications that increase urination. Low potassium (hypokalemia) Causes. [1] Low potassium also increases the risk of an abnormal heart rhythm, which is often too slow and can cause cardiac arrest. Weakness and Fatigue. It is important to remember that the cause of hypokalemia can be multifactorial, with the involvement of more than one mechanism or etiology. Here is a video version of all the information to know about hypokalemia if you would like to learn about the information in video form. Foods rich in potassium include dried fruits (particularly dried figs), nuts, bran cereals and wheat germ, lima beans, molasses, leafy green vegetables, broccoli, winter squash, beets, carrots, cauliflower, potatoes, avocados, tomatoes, coconut water, citrus fruits (particularly oranges), cantaloupe, kiwis, mangoes, bananas, and red meats. Low potassium (hypokalemia) has many causes. A person’s blood can become low in potassium if they haven’t been taking in enough through their diet. Common medications include loop diuretics (such as Furosemide). Pseudohypokalemia is a decrease in the amount of potassium that occurs due to excessive uptake of potassium by metabolically active cells in a blood sample after it has been drawn. Gintel Syndrome: Gintel syndrome is a rare syndrome that causes imbalances in the ion concentrations of the body. Gastrointestinal tract losses. [18], Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/L with levels below 3.5 mmol/L (less than 3.5 mEq/L) defined as hypokalemia. Potassium contained in foods is almost entirely coupled with phosphate and is thus ineffective in correcting hypokalemia associated with hypochloremia that may occur due to vomiting, diuretic therapy, or nasogastric drainage. Inadequate potassium intake and low magnesium levels can result in hypokalemia. In: Emergency Medicine: Clinical Essentials. As a result, a greater-than-normal stimulus is required for depolarization of the membrane to initiate an action potential. [23], The plot of the science fiction novel Destiny's Road by Larry Niven centers around the setting's scarcity of available potassium, and the resulting deficiency and its effects on the world's colonists and their society.

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